Graffiti Model

 Graffiti Model

This is a great cooperative learning model that gets students up and moving and interacting with their classmates, and there are lots of versions--gallery strolls, silent graffitis, etc. This model can also be used as a diagnostic or formative assessment. The key is individual accountability. 

Steps to the Model

1. Prepare the graffiti questions and group number and composition. 
• This step is done prior to class. 
• If you have a large class and only a few stations, you can make more than one of each station in order to keep the groups small and interactive. 
• Prompts can be questions, case scenarios, photographs, hypothetical scenarios, political cartoons, or whatever. Whatever you choose, your prompts need to be open-ended; otherwise groups will simply copy the responses of those that came before. 
2. Distribute materials. 
• You may assign groups a specific color to write with to track which comments came from whom, or not. 
3. Group answer questions. 
• Give students 3-5 minutes to discuss and respond to prompts. 
• Give them timing cues so they can wrap up. 
4. Exchange questions. 
• Students can agree or disagree or add on to the previous students' comments. 
• Continue until all students have time to answer all questions. 
• Groups should rotate their scribes so all are able to participate. 
• The teacher wanders around listening in for misconceptions or to ask provocative questions to keep students engaged. Conversely, depending on your purpose for the activity, you may want to stay completely out of it (e.g. if you're using the activity as a pre-assessment). 
5. Return to the original question, summarize, and make generalizations. 
• You can have students turn the sheet over to make their summaries and generalizations on the back. 
6. Share information. 
• Each group shares their generalizations with the rest of the class. 
• The teacher can fill in any holes. 
7. Evaluate the Group Process. 
• This step encompasses both content and metacognitive evaluation--in other words, the what and the how. Students need to be held individually accountable for the information (the what) but they also need to understand for themselves why this process did or did not help them learn the material (the how). 
• You must hold all individuals accountable for all information, not just the information on their original poster. 

Jigsaw Model

 Jigsaw Model

This is a dangerous model! Beware! It's dangerous because it has a tendency to break down at step 6, "hold individuals accountable." Students' learning will only be as specific and measurable as the objectives you give your expert groups. If you give your expert groups a vague goal, they will in turn teach vague concepts, and you'll have nothing to hold your students accountable for. I see this model attempted all the time, but seldom successfully. 

Steps of model: 

1. Introduce the Jigsaw process to the students. 
• The learning objectives for the lesson. 
• The composition and size of each group. 
• The differences between the expert and learning group. 
• How much time students will have to work in each group. 
• Access to the required materials. 
• The expert group task goal. 
• The learning group task goal. 
• The method of determining individual accountability. 
2. Assign students to expert and learning groups. 
• Assign heterogenous or random groups to balance achievement, motivation, gender, etc. 
• Let students establish familiarity with each other before proceeding. 
• Review the rules with the groups. 
• Team members are responsible for each other; they help each other asking teacher for assistance. 
• No student may leave team area until all students have mastered the task. 
3. Explain the task and assemble expert groups. 
• Objectives are explained to individual groups and materials are provided. 
4. Allow expert groups to process information. 
• Objectives need to be very clear (see above). 
• Make sure objectives are met before letting experts teach the learners. 
5. Experts teach in their learning group. 
• Provide a graphic organizer for students to process information all groups. 
• All students should become experts in all areas. 
6. Hold individuals accountable. 
• Assessment should be aligned with the learning objectives for the lesson or unit. 
• Individual students need to be held accountable for all information. 
• Assessment may be in the form of a quiz, discussion, essay, checklist, etc. 
7. Evaluate the Jigsaw process. 
• Debrief the jigsaw process (metacognition). 
• Students evaluate their own learning in relation to the lesson. 
• This can be done through class discussion, on an exit card, in conference with teacher, etc. 

Tips and hints to this model: 

• Do not "dumb down" your objectives or expectations just because students are teaching. Every student needs to become an expert in every objective. 
• Expert groups need very clear objectives so they know exactly what to teach in their learning groups. 

Socratic Seminar

 Socratic Seminar

This model helps students to develop age-appropriate discussion skills for controversial or multisided topics. It is not a debate. The focus is on listening, articulation of ideas, and respect. Students do not have to reach a common decision, but they should expand their thinking and come to an educated personal decision or viewpoint on the topic. Objectives and assessments should target higher-order thinking skills. Teacher should establish both content and behavioral objectives. 

If you want to learn more about developing a Socratic classroom, check out Matt Copeland's book, Socratic Circles: Fostering Critical and Creative Thinking in Middle and High School, in which he illustrates multiple simple and complex versions of the Socratic model. 

Steps to the model

1. Choose the text--Written, visual, or Audio (part of teacher preparation). 
• Text should be related to the "big ideas" of your unit, or your essential questions. 
• Text should be at appropriate age and cognitive level. 
2. Plan and cluster several questions of varying cognitive demand (part of teacher prep). 
• Have a broad "umbrella" question (e.g. your essential question) that summarizes the issue. 
• Use Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy as a guide for creating "stratified" or "leveled" questions. 
• Questions should be open ended. 
3. Introduce the model to the students. 
• Let students know the model is to help them engage in intellectual conversation. 
• Make sure that everyone participates and no one dominates. 
• Students should prepare for the discussion by annotating the text or taking notes. (You may use annotated text as an "entry ticket" to the discussion.)
• Teacher may provide discussion "prompts" for students. 
4. Conduct the discussion. 
• Students should support their comments with evidence. 
• Only one student should speak at a time. 
• Students should sit in a circle so they are talking to each other. Teacher may sit inside or outside the circle. 
• Introduce the umbrella question at the beginning of the discussion, but don't answer it until the end. Tell students they need to build up to that questions by answering some other questions first. 
5. Review and summarize the discussion. 
• Take time at the end of the discussion for students to process the information (metacognition) or the benefits to the discussion are lost. 
• Students evaluate the content of the discussion and determine the most important ideas. 
6. Evaluate the discussion. 
• Students evaluate the process and their personal contributions. 
• Did they cite reasons and evidence for comments? 
• Did they speak clearly and listen respectfully? 
• Did they avoid hostile exchanges? 
• Were they prepared for the seminar? 
• Set goals for the next discujssion. 

Synectics version 1 and 2

 The Synectics Model--Version 1

    Making the familiar Strange! 

"Synectics is specifically designed to enhance creativity in problem solving by having students consciously develop analogies that allow an emotional as well as a rational approach to solutions." Analogies, remember, are extended comparisons that deeper our understanding of a subject. Version 1 of the synectics model allows students to look deeply at something (or someone) they think they already know, and through the creation of an analogy they are forced to look at that thing from a new and deeper perspective (making the familiar strange). 

Steps to the model: 

1. Describe the topic
• Choose a concept (a character from a novel, a behavior, an experience, an activity, an abstract idea) and have students describe that concept/person/thing. 
• List the descriptions on the board.  
2. Create direct analogies. 
• Select a category, such as movies, animals, sports, or cartoon characters, and have students identify items in that category that could be described using the same list as the one you made in step 1. 
• List these items in another column, as students explain the reasons for their choices. 
• Pick the best or favorite item from that list for the next step. 
3. Describe personal analogies.
• Students will create personal analogies from the one item by pretending to be that item and describing what it feels like. 
• List the feelings (good or ill) in a third column as students explain their rationale. 
• Work to get as many responses here as possible to help with the next step. Also, students need to address both positive and negative feelings. 
4. Identify compressed conflicts. 
• From the list created in step three, pair words together that seem to fight against each other. (The pairs don't have to be opposites; they just need to present some sort of conflict or strong tension.)
• Words can be used more than once. Experiment until you have a very strong conflict. 
• Circle the pair of words that represents the strongest conflict or greatest tension. 
5. Create a new direct analogy.
• Select another category, such as a fruit, office equipment, or historical figures.
• Have students identify items within that category that can also be described using the compressed conflict chosen. 
• Brainstorm a list so that you can pick the best one and circle it.
6.   Reexamine the original topic. 
• Take whatever item students circled in step 5 and loop back to your original topic. 
• Students now describe the original topic in terms of the item circled in step 5--how are they similar?
• Students must be deeply creative in order to extend the analogy. 
• Students present their final analogy in a summary paragraph (Your product objective should align to this step.)

Tips: The more you use this model, the better you get at it and the more categories you dare employ. Give the model a few valiant attempts and you'll fall in love! Also, you can provide a graphic organizer so students can work individually or in small groups. 

The Synectics Model Version 2

    Making the strange familiar! 

An analogy is an extended comparison that deepens our understanding of a subject. Version 2 of the synectics model allows students access to difficult, unfamiliar concepts by way of comparing the unfamiliar to something familiar through an analogy that you, the teacher, provide. The model works well because students have to be able to identify both similarities and differences between the two concepts. 

Steps to the model: 

1. Provide information. 
• The teacher provides factual information about the material to be learned. 
2. Present the analogy. 
• The teacher presents multiple similarities between the new, unfamiliar concept and a concept that is familiar to students. 
3. Use personal analogy to create compressed conflicts. 
• The teacher asks students to explain what it feels like, for good or ill, to be the familiar concept. 
• Students brainstorm these feelings while the teacher lists them on the board. 
• Students pair words from the list that seem to contradict one another. the words don't have to be opposites, but they should have conflict connotations. 
• Words may be used more than once. 
• Students select one pair of words that represents a strong conflict. This is a "compressed conflict." 
4. Compare the compressed conflict with the subject
• The class discusses the new, unfamiliar concept in terms of the compressed conflict. 
• The teacher asks students to describe how they feel on each side of the conflict. 
5. Identify differences. 
• Students explain where the analogy doesn't fit--where it falls short. 
• Responses at this point help the teacher determine students' depth of understanding. 
• This is also an opportunity to identify misunderstandings and misconceptions. 
6. Reexamine the original subject. 
• Students discuss or write about the original, unfamiliar concept using ideas that were discussed in the lesson. 
• The discussion or written piece should demonstrate deepened understanding of the new concept. 
7. Create new direct analogies. 
• Students create their own analogies for the original subject. 
• Analogy should be far removed from the subject, as that will generate more interesting and deeper comparisons. 
• This step may serve as a formative assessment. 

Academic Controversy

 The Academic Controversy Model

While resolution of conflict helps student analyze multiple sides of an issue, the Academic Controversy model works well with issues that are more two-sided, or binary, with a similar effect: your students will consider both sides of an issue without screaming and ranting. This model ultimately requires compromise. Students have to be able to defend both sides of the issue in order to succeed.

Prior to class, identify a topic as well as age-appropriate materials supporting each side of the issue (or let advanced students identify their own source materials). You should also provide the instructions both orally and in writing. Then pair students: four students per group, two per side. 

Steps to the Model

1. Students prepare their positions. 
• Pair students with their partner to review their materials. 
• Pairs come up with their "thesis" statement, as well as their supports/evidences. 
• They prepare a short presentation to help their peers understand their argument. 
2. Students present and advocate their positions. 
• Each pair presents its position. Both partners participate! 
• While the first pair presents, the second pair takes notes and vice versa. 
• There is no arguing or debating at this step, though clarification questions can be asked. 
• The goal here is for the partnerships to understand the opposing argument. 
3. Open discussion and rebuttals. 
• Pairs continue to advocate their own position and refuse the opposition through questioning and deconstruction. 
• Rebuttals should be based on counterarguments, clarifications and extensions. 
• Positions should be presented in a polite and reasonable manner. 
4. Reverse positions. 
• Students switch sides and repeat steps 1-3 from the opposite viewpoint. 
• You can provide new facts, materials or information. 
• You could also re-match your pairs (keeping original pairs together|). 
5. Synthesize and integrate the best evidence into a joint position. 
• Group members drop sides and the students compromise into a joint position. 
6. Present the group synthesis. 
• Groups can present their synthesis orally or in writing. 
• This step could provide a formative assessment to one of your learning objectives. 
• You could also formatively assess students on the defense of their own opinion if that opinion isn't represented by the compromise. 
7. Group processing of the controversy and participation of members. 
• The class discusses the positive and negative aspects of the experience. 
• Give individuals the opportunity to reflect on their own performance and participation. 

Other tips and hints: 

• You can apply this model to both process and product objectives. The literacy core provides lots of process objectives in addition to those found in your own core. 
• Give a general overview of the process before you begin; then give detailed instructions at each step. If you try to give them too many directions at once they'll get confused. 

Integrative Model

 Integrative Model

The purpose of the integrative model is to help students make sense of complex and rich relationships found in your discipline. The model supports critical thinking strategies while helping students learn specific concepts, facts, and generalizations. 

Steps of the Model 

1. Plan for the Integrative model (the teacher does this step before class). 
• Identify your topic and target generalizations. 
• Prepare a data set for your students. "Data" is any form of input you provide for them to analyze. It may be a set of numbers, photographs, words, pictures, maps, musical phrases, video clips, poems, dialogues, etc. 
2. Describe, compare, and search for patterns in the data set. 
• Begin the lesson by providing necessary background information on the topic. 
• Then ask the students to describe what they see in the data set. What patterns do they notice? What similarities and differences? 
3. Explain the identified similarities and differences. 
• Students clearly articulate the similarities and differences they have found. This requires deeper analysis than step 2. 
• Students should document what they found in step 2 with direct reference to the data source. In other words, they should defend their findings. 
4. Hypothesize what would happen under different conditions. 
• You now provide a situation in which conditions change, and ask students to hypothesize a new outcome. 
• Students should explain their hypotheses and conclusions. 
5. Make broad generalizations about the topic and the discussion. 
• Students summarize and synthesize the discussion and make broad generalizations about the topic. 

Formative assessment is offered at each step of the model through question and answer. Students should be accountable for individual summaries and generalizations about the topic (step 5). This can be done through journal entries, exit slips, working through additional problems, etc. Evaluation criteria may include the number and quality of the comparisons and the logic and quality of the explanations. 

Differentiation can be met by manipulating the data set to meet the needs of individual students, by varying the level of complexity and abstraction, or by highlighting specific pieces of information to play to student interest. Students may be part of developing the data sets by putting together matrices or graphs  to be explored. Questions are also a powerful differentiation tool because questions can be personalized. 

Cause and Effect Model

 Cause and Effect Model

The Cause and Effect model goes beyond obvious causes and effects by forcing students to analyze events for prior causes and subseqeuent (long-term) effects that may at first seem unrelated. The model also allows students to draw conclusions specific to the event being analyzed and generalizations unbound by time or place. 

Steps of the Model

1. Choose the topic, action, or problem to be analyzed. 
• The topic should be in the form of a statement, not a question. 
• The topic may be fictional, hypothetical, or real. It can be current or historical. 
• The topic should reflect a significant action, event, condition, or conflict. 
2. Ask for immediate causes and support for those causes. 
• Immediate causes are usually obvious and are often stated in the supporting text. 
• Immediate causes are written to the left of the topic you are analyzing. 
3. Ask for immediate effects and support for those effects. 
• Immediate effects are also usually obvious and are stated in the text. 
• Immediate effects are written to the right of the topic you are analyzing. 
4. Ask for prior causes and support (the causes of the causes). 
• Address each immediate causes in turn, and look for causes of those causes. 
• Prior causes are written to the left of the immediate causes. 
• Students may need to infer some prior causes, but should back up their inferences. 
5. Ask for subsequent (long-term) effects and support. 
• Address each immediate effect in turn, and look for long-term effects. 
• Subsequent effects are written to the right of the immediate effects. 
• Students may need to infer or predict some long-term effects. 
6. Ask for conclusions. 
• Read completed graphic organizer from left to right. 
• Create conclusions about the topic based on information provided in graphic organizer. Conclusions are specific to the topic at hand. 
7. Ask for generalizations. 
• Generalizations are conclusions expressed in very general terms--general observations about humanity. 
• Generalizations may be articulated in themes. 
• Generalizations may address an overarching essential question. 
• Generalizations should make the topic matter to the students (should personalize the topic). 
8. Evaluate students' performance. 
• Evaluate engagement in process/participation. 
• Conclusions and/or generalizations should align to your daily indicator(s). 

Differentiation in this model is offered through topic selection, discussion, scaffolding, choice, grouping, etc. 

Formative assessment can be offered through the graphic organizer, essays which use conclusions as thesis, observation of responses throughout the process, etc. 

Hint: When using this model, go into the activity with a graphic organizer filled out to your expectation. This way, if students miss something you deem pertinent, you can formulate helpful questions to guide them to their target. (Don't tell them what you're looking for; just prod them in the right direction).  

Concept Development Model

 Concept Development Model

This model allows students to share their understanding of a concept and then to rearrange or modify that understanding by interacting with their peers' understandings through the development process. 

This model works well as a pre-assessment because it allows the teacher to see what students already know about a specific topic. The process also allows for misconceptions to emerge and be corrected. Concept development also works as a formative assessment (students share and solidify their learning) or as a tool for organizing essays or presentations. 

Steps of the Model

1. List as many items as possible that are associated with the subject (brainstorming)
• Let students be creative in answering. Don't interrupt their thought process. 
• Correct misconceptions as they arise. 
2. Group the items because they are alike in some way. 
• Examine the relationships among items. 
• Don't leave any items out. Include them all. 
3. Label the groups by defining the reasons for grouping. 
• Students must explain the reasons for their groupings. 
• Steps 2 and 3 might happen at the same time, or you might go back and forth. 
4. Regroup or subsume individual items or whole groups under other groups. 
• Expose multiple perspectives. 
• Question previous groupings. 
5. Synthesize the information by summarizing the data and forming generalizations. 
• Students summarize trends in one or two sentences. 
• You may have a generalization for each group as well as an umbrella generalization. 
6. Evaluate students' progress by assessing their ability to generate a wide variety of items and to group those items flexibly
• Look for improved flexibility in learning over time. 

Variations on the Model

• To save time or to make sure certain items are included, the teacher may provide the brainstorming items and have the students group them. 
• The teacher may provide the labels. For example, you can have the students label their groups themselves, but then you provide them specific labels for step 4 (the regrouping).